/CropBox [0 0 612 792] Sixty percent of these arrests occurred during years 4 through 9. Beth M. Huebner, Timothy S. Bynum. This volume of the series was designed to provide a comprehensive primer on the existing best practices and emerging developments in the study and design research on crime and criminology. /Count 19 This leads to imprecision and misunderstandings. /BaseFont /Times-Bold Generally measurement is the most important and difficult phase of criminal justice research. 2022 School Directors' Conference; . >> In addition to comparing and contrasting the methodological issues associated with self-report surveys and official records, the workshop explored methods for obtaining accurate self-reports on sensitive questions about stigmatized (crime) events, estimating crime and victimization in rural counties and townships, and developing unbiased prevalence and incidence rates for rare events among population subgroups. For example alcohol use might serve as an independent variable in one experiment and as _____ in another. For example, if I had a survey item asking for a respondents favorite professional sport, I might code the answer options this way: What is your favorite professional sport? When we say that someone is witty, we are making a _____ assertion. 722 722 722 722 722 722 1000 722 667 667 endobj A review of the 1999 UCR data posted on the FBIs web site indicates that six statesIllinois, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Montana, and New Hampshirereport only limited data. Vol. Criminal / By admin. endobj In fact, to some degree, all of the issues discussed have been studied and described for over two decades without resolution. 278 500 500 278 278 444 278 722 500 500 556 500 444 444 444 444 444 444 667 444 444 444 444 444 278 278 278 278 500 556 Official data such as UCR arrest data have a different set of problems. Jump up to the previous page or down to the next one. Foremost among them is that most crimes are not reported to the police, and only a small proportion of those that are reported result in an arrest. ratio measurement would be a great way to gather such information. \text{Balance sheet accounts:}\\ 611 611 611 611 611 611 889 667 611 611 i. But this can only be the case if the intervals between the scale points correspond to empirical observations in a metric sense. Edited volume that includes papers covering methodological and analytical issues related to the measurement of crime and the functioning of the criminal justice system. In addition to comparing and contrasting the methodological issues associated with self-report surveys and official records, the workshop explored methods for obtaining accurate self-reports on sensitive questions about crime events, estimating crime and victimization in rural counties and townships and developing unbiased prevalence and incidence rates for rate events among population subgroups. stream Levels of Measurement - Research Methods for Criminal Justice and Criminology: A Text and Reader Levels of Measurement There are four levels of measurement for variables, starting with nominal. The response should be supported with a minimum of three scholarly references as well as in-text citations, using proper APA format. If crime is a complex issue to begin with, it is especially so in the District of Columbia. 453 333 333 300 310 500 750 750 750 444 333 500 500 278 278 500 278 778 500 500 Thus, drawing precise conclusions about small subgroups requires that careful attention be paid to the sampling frame and the methods required to link the data to the subgroups of interest. /FontDescriptor 30 0 R Current Issues: Stereotypes in Policing, 6.12. endobj Much of the work assessing how crime is measured focuses on data collected in the United States. The purpose of this study is to better understand the relationship between criminal justice internships and knowledge domains. /LastChar 255 Generally measurement is the most important and difficult phase of criminal justice research. The measurement issues discussed include, but certainly are not limited to, the following: Improving reliability. Sign up here . /FontDescriptor 31 0 R 278 333 469 500 333 444 500 444 500 444 >> What are the three different types of data sources we often rely on in CJ? {yT{\"("R #NO-KPa-T@ #hZxZNpyngPppfZF9!G3[?Sez2)M3Ld-)[ -.KF 58cz2,89a$-5q5\u ^G|&5N Being exhaustive means that the researcher should be able to classify _____. Without being able to agree on a conceptual definition, operationalizing and measuring concepts is _____. \text{Dividends}&\text{Credit}&\text{Credit}&\\ Interval-level data have equal levels of measurement, a key characteristic that is lacking with ordinal ranks. /F2 11 0 R The references doesn't count towards the word count! Workshop participants recognized the need to be pragmatic. The work as a whole includes chapters on the measurement of criminal typologies, the offenders, offending and victimization, criminal justice organizations, and specialized measurement. There are four main levels of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. 722 556 667 722 722 1000 722 722 667 333 criminal justice studies include crime, recidivism, police patrol, etc. 722 333 389 722 611 889 722 722 556 722 We apprehend, try, and punish offenders by means of a loose confederation of agencies at all levels of government. The researchers found that: The 401,288 state prisoners released in 2005 had 1,994,000 arrests during the 9-year period, an average of 5 arrests per released prisoner. Likewise, Thornberry and Krohn argue for the need to better understand the effects of self-administration (e.g., computer-assisted self-administered interviews) on reporting errors in surveys of crime. Compounding these problems are the recent interest in rare crime events, such as violent crimes committed by youth and hate crimes; the need for attention to vulnerable subpopulations, such as very young and school-age children and disabled, elderly, and immigrant populations; and a focus on small- or local-area estimates of crime and victimization. Understand data and its importance, explore the definition and examples of the four levels of. Representatives of two federal agencies, the Bureau of Justice Statistics and the National Institute of Justice, also participated. %PDF-1.5 Current Issues: Use of Force and Vehicle Pursuits, 6.10. Social scientific experiments seldom involve only the observation of an experimental group, to which a stimulus has been administered. \text{Capital Stock}&\text{Credit}&&\\ Dark or Hidden Figure of Crime, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, Develop an understanding of the different data sources used to gather precise and accurate measures of crime, Recognize the difference between official or reported statistics, self-report statistics, and victimization statistics, Evaluate the reliability of statistics and data heard about the criminal justice system. The independent variable takes the form of an experimental stimulus that is either present or absentthat is, having two attributes. What are the strengths and limitations of each data source? This webinar will discuss the importance of using data to identify problematic patterns that need correction as well as best practices that could be replicated. You'll get a detailed solution from a subject matter expert that helps you learn core concepts. /F1 10 0 R Research shows that criminal justice involvement has a negative effect on people's physical and mental health, 2 - 4 employment and earnings, 5 marriage and family life, 5, 6 and access to housing opportunities, 7 among other areas. The type of causal reasoning is _____ when the causes of a single situation are exhaustively examined and the conclusion is drawn based on exhaustive examination. Using the deductive approach, we reason from _____. endobj /Pages 2 0 R Basics of Research Methods for Criminal Justi, Basics of Research Methods Criminal Justice &, Unit 4 APUSH Practice Multiple Choice Questio. /Type /Font In chapter 3 of The Practice of Research in Criminology and Criminal Justice there are four areas of focus. a. histogram b. bar chart c. polygon d. pie chart Ans: C Answer Location: The Tabular and Graphical Display of . Raghunathan, T.E. Performance measures provide benchmarks about whether or not optimum performance by the criminal justice system (and the entities within it) is being realized and, more importantly, whether the system is achieving what it intends to achieve under the evidence-based decision making (EBDM) framework. A change in _____ measures demonstrated correlation. /Font << >> Nominal level is the most basic level of measurement in which any numbers assigned to variable attributes are for labeling purposes only. /Author (Bachman) Nominal level is the most basic level of measurement in which any numbers assigned to variable attributes are for labeling purposes only. Paper commissioned for the Committee on Law and Justice, Workshop on Measurement Problems in Criminal Justice Research, July 2000, National Research Council, Washington, DC. Height is clearly a ratio level of measurement example. /LastChar 255 /Encoding /WinAnsiEncoding A total cholesterol of 5.0 or less is satisfactory and remember that 5.0 of total cholesterol is equivalent to 3.0 of 'bad' LDL. The four levels of measurement of data are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. Raghunathan developed a framework for obtaining small or local-area estimates of victimization or crime rates by combining information from surveys and administrative data sources. Much of the knowledge about reporting errors in crime surveys comes from crosssectional studies. Current Issues: Internal Affairs and Discipline, 6.14. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Biden signing the measure would put an end to a protracted and involved effort at criminal justice reform that Washington undertook in 2006. Overall . Given the context of the experiment and research question any variable may change its designation. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 37 (2), 239-255. 564 444 921 722 667 667 722 611 556 722 /Resources << The accuracy of official data is also compromised by differences in the definitions of crimes and reporting protocols. "Spare the Rod, Spoil the Child" Myth/Controversy, 3.3. In doing so, be sure to delineate the differences among the various levels of measurement. Nuance PDF CreateElhamMicrosoft Word - Bachman, Stats 4e Ch 2 Discussion Group Problems The three main sources of crime data include official reports from the police, surveys of victims, and self-reports from offenders. 4, Measurement and analysis of crime and justice. The response should be supported with a minimum of three scholarly references as well as in-text citations, using proper APA format. FSXR`rRPM7ss% ) iJy .bub:HC;}YLZ }^6elJa1HpI(H(,iKQr#Yd6ei`d4oV+AU3HDAcn^l=C$t`' 500 1000 500 500 333 1000 556 333 1000 778 The term legislature refers to lawmaking assemblies such as the Congress of the United States or the lawmaking bodies of all the states.Legislatures have many important functions in the criminal justice system. 444 444 444 444 278 278 278 278 500 500 This, as well as more conventional problems associated with interviewing crime victims, presents substantial design and analytical difficulties. 14 0 obj IncreasDecreaseNormalBalanceBalancesheetaccounts:AssetDebitLiabilityDebitStockholdersEquity:CapitalStockCreditRetainedEarnings(g)CreditDividendsCreditCreditIncomestatementaccounts:RevenueCreditExpenseCreditDebit\begin{array}{lcc} 611 611 333 333 333 333 722 667 722 722 For example, measuring the number of dollars a person earns in one year (a person can earn zero). << Without additional resources devoted to improving the data on crime and justice, many of the problems discussed at the workshop are likely to persist. 2. /Encoding /WinAnsiEncoding << The linear association of shear modulus with surface EMG amplitude observed in many human muscles implies that muscle shear modulus can be used as a valid alternative to surface EMG for evaluating muscle activation. It is also to ensure that all criminals are punished, but punished fairly. criminal justice funding to states. That is necessary, as statistical software will not run any tests when the variable attributes are input as words. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Question: For each of the following examples of criminal justice studies, state whether the scale of measurement used is nominal, ordinal, or at least interval (i.e., interval or ratio). View our suggested citation for this chapter. /Length 1310 These measures can not be logically ordered. Criminal Justice Salaries. A control group offsets the effects of the experiment itself. /BaseFont /TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT Available funds generally are reserved for studies that potentially have a direct impact on policy; support for longitudinal or methodological studies for the most part simply is not there. This is essentially pre-test. More important and substantive is the classification of crimes according to the severity of punishment. /First 26 0 R /MediaBox [0 0 612 792] Here, local and federal jurisdiction intersect and clash in ways that have no analog elsewhere in the country. Our American system of justice has evolved from the English common law into a complex series of procedures and decisions. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs and National Institute of Justice. burglary or auto theft, can therefore result in large differences in outcomes and misleading conclusions about crime trends. We are going to address conceptualization by using substance abuse and related ideas as examples. In chapter 3 of The Practice of Research in Criminology and Criminal Justice there are four areas of focus. Territories Financial Support Center (TFSC), Tribal Financial Management Center (TFMC). an independent variable on a dependent variable. endobj Switch between the Original Pages, where you can read the report as it appeared in print, and Text Pages for the web version, where you can highlight and search the text. Although these data collection systems do many things right, they are, like any such system, beset with the methodological problems of surveys in general as well as particular problems associated with measuring illicit, deviant, and deleterious activities. We cannot do that in reverse, though. 1 0 obj Sources of Criminal Law: Statutes, Ordinances, and Other Legislative Enactments, 3.5. 0 Reviews. Now, age can be a tricky one. /Count 41 Using these data, the measures created from the administrative data sources can be treated as predictors and the victimization rates computed from the surveys as dependent variables. This is called post-test. os+8G fLaRQ 9a3e%v,xMBPB zZ6FQV `RQHh0^0FDwT#rfD;XRH B-xYQ8ne;{U. someone with a height of 5ft is 1 foot shorter than someone who is 6ft tall, and you can't be measured at a value of 0 or lower. /Title (Statistics for Criminology and Criminal Justice 4th Edition Bachman Solutions Manual) The IRB required her to change the GPA question from ratio (please provide your exact GPA on a 4-point scale) to ordinal (please indicate if you have a GPA of 3.5 to 4.0, 3.0 to 3.49, etc.). /ProcSet [/PDF /Text] Participants represented a range of interests and academic disciplines, including criminology, econometrics, law, psychology, public policy, and statistics. The numbers next to the sports do not rank them in level of importance, international popularity, television ratings, or anything else. Even perfectly valid and reliable data cannot completely address the many questions of interest. << Getting Tough: Initiatives for Punishment and Accountability, 10.9. Criminal cases are brought by the government through the criminal justice system. McCleary, R., D. Wiebe, and R. Turbow 2000 Screening Bias. 500 500 500 500 500 549 500 556 556 556 Variables' attributes that have the characteristics of exhaustiveness and mutual exclusiveness, can be logically ordered and the distance between one and the other values of the variables can be precisely measured are _____. In the previous section, we spent much time trying to understand how to define crime, whereas this section will focus on the task of measuring crime. endobj Importance of Evidence Based Practices, 5.7. IN THE FIRST PAPER, 'PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT AND THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM,' THE MEASUREMENT OF THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM PERFORMANCE IS DERIVED FROM AN INITIAL CONCEPTUALIZATION OF THE TOTAL SOCIAL COST ASSOCIATED WITH CRIME AND CRIME CONTROL AND THE NET COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE SERVICE PROVIDED BY THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM. Explain your choice in complete sentences. \text{Liability}&&\text{Debit}&\\ 722 333 444 667 556 833 667 722 611 722 Social science is not so much interested in people but rather _____. This report provides information that was presented at the workshop. /Metadata 4 0 R Part IThere is a minimum word requirement is a total of 1,300 words. /Type /Font Yet, the distinction between a measure that constitutes a 'penalty' and one that . 1 exhibit and 59 references Additional Details Agencies NIJ Date Published: January 1, 2000 (5 points) 2. The estimated time for completion of an associate degree in criminal justice is three years. /CropBox [0 0 612 792] Paper commissioned for the Committee on Law and Justice, Workshop on Measurement Problems in Criminal Justice Research, July 2000, National Research Council, Washington, DC. We measure different stages of criminal justice contact to determine the degree to which the level of contact is correlated with wages. Interval-level data can go below zero, so a good example of data at this level would be the air temperature. Since September 1930, the FBI has administered the program and currently collects information on the following crimes: murder and nonnegligent manslaughter, forcible rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny-theft, motor vehicle theft, and arson. HwAt8K, Microsoft Word - Bachman, Stats 4e Ch 2 Discussion Group Problems. /Subtype /TrueType 675 500 920 611 611 667 722 611 611 722 <> >> << << Current Issues in Corrections: War on Drugs and Gangs, 9.15. 778 778 778 570 778 722 722 722 722 722 500 500 500 500 220 500 333 747 300 500 Cross-level inference. 2: Defining and Measuring Crime and Criminal Justice - SOU-CCJ230 Introduction to the American Criminal Justice System 2: Defining and Measuring Crime and Criminal Justice Learning Objectives In the previous section, we spent much time trying to understand how to define crime, whereas this section will focus on the task of measuring crime. 570 333 747 500 400 549 300 300 333 576 justice system, it stands to reason that these levels of measurement would be used by any one /Encoding /WinAnsiEncoding Current Issues in Corrections: Mass Incarceration, 9.14. However, these agencies do not always file reports as called for in the reporting protocol. /Creator (testbanklive.com) << /Kids [6 0 R 7 0 R 8 0 R] Current Issues in Corrections: Reentry and the Future of Corrections, 10.3. Nomothetic explanation settles for ______. The key standards for measurement quality are _____. 1. Who is S. S. Stevens? Define Write a paragraph about the history of the Northeast that includes the words culture hearth, cuneiform, qanat, natural boundary, embargo, and ziggurat. . Courtroom Players: Judges and Court Staff, 7.10. There would be no question whether the battle for first or second was a photo finish or if the winner easily defeated the field. /F4 13 0 R A major research effort undertaken in the early 1980s as part of the redesign of the NCVS addressed many important sampling questions, but (according to several workshop participants) for social and political reasons, much of this information did not make it into the survey.1, Today, in fact, the problems may be growing worse because of eroding federal investment in data systems and social science research on crime and victimization. A brief summary of the topics addressed in the other two commissioned papers appears below. THE SECOND PAPER, 'A CONCEPTUAL BASIS FOR EFFECTIVENESS MEASUREMENT OF LAW ENFORCEMENT ACTIVITIES,' ATTEMPTS TO DEMONSTRATE A LOGICAL AND SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO DETERMINE A METHODOLOGY OR FAMILY OF METHODOLOGIES FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF LAW ENFORCEMENT EFFECTIVENESS AND TO SUGGEST WHICH TOPIC AREAS SHOULD BE CONSIDERED FOR FUTURE DEVELOPMENT IN ORDER TO HAVE EVALUATIVE PROCESSES YIELD 'EMPIRICAL TRUTHS.' In his paper, T.E. 611 500 556 722 611 833 611 556 556 389 >> 2 0 obj Day-to-day communication is made possible through general but often vague and unspoken agreements about the use of terms. /Subtype /Type1 ) or https:// means youve safely connected to the .gov website. Very large general population samples are therefore required to accurately characterize the population of offenders and victims, and detailed subgroup analyses can be problematic. These data collection systems utilize different methods of measuring criminal behavior. Bachman & Paternoster, Statistics for Criminology and Criminal Justice 4th Edition Instructor & Student Resource CHAPTER 2: LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT AND AGGREGATION DISCUSSION GROUP QUESTIONS 1. << >> /LastChar 255 \text{Income statement accounts:}&&&\\ 6vs"B|IQ$d(zKfjoc. Revisiting the example of runners completing a race, if we had the times that each runner crossed the finish line, we would not only know their rank order, but we would be able to tell the exact distance between the winner, second-place finisher, third-place finisher, and so on. /Outlines 3 0 R One of the functions of the Department of Justice's Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA) is to distribute to the states Byrne Program block grant funds which have been appropriated by Congress under the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988 (ADA). uuid:8d4873c8-f8b0-57ba-3920-205d5acc4bc4 These data collection systems and measures are routinely used to talk about crime trends and the effect of interventions on crime rates and specific crime types, but because of what is known about the errors in them and what is tacitly assumed about the unknown errorsthat they are even greaterresearchers generally seem uncomfortable about using the available data to draw conclusions. 667 556 611 722 722 944 722 722 611 333 Most measurement of crime in this country emanates from two major data sources. Achen, C., & Shively W. P. (1995). estimates, or even state-level estimates, with adequate precision, are inadequate to yield reliable estimates for small areas. /Kids [22 0 R 23 0 R 24 0 R 25 0 R] The authors also recommend using state-of-the-art survey methodologies that apply what is known about cognitive processes to interviewing techniques (also discussed by Tourangeau and McNeeley in Chapter 2). The problem, however, is that many of the national surveys, such as the National Victimization Survey, though large enough to yield national. However, if your doctor is planning your treatment, a full lipid profile is needed (Heart health: answers at your fingertips). The criminal justice system is busy, with many millions of transactions taking place annually. Not a MyNAP member yet? The design and execution of criminal justice research require that the confusion over concepts and reality is removed. The researcher should be able to generalize from the sample to the population. >> 12 0 obj Section 1.3: Defining and Measuring Crime A crime is an act or omission that is prohibited by law. The discussions prompted participants to think about the importance of good crime statistics, which according to some participants have never gotten much beyond measures of prevalence and incidence. /Last 9 0 R /A 28 0 R 333 500 556 278 333 556 278 833 556 500 What is the level of measurement for each of the following variables? >> For almost seven decades, the FBIs Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) has collected information on crimes known to the police and arrests from local and state jurisdictions throughout the country. Two chapters follow this introduction. 13 0 obj Spending for criminal justice activities accounts for just over 3 cents of every dollar in public spending (about $74 billion) less than 1% of Federal spending, more than 6% of spending by the States, and nearly 7% of local spending. The difference between height scores is quantifiable, e.g. 8 0 obj 1 We also estimate race- and ethnicity-specific models to study whether criminal justice contacts have uniform or distinct effects across sociodemographic groups, which is particularly important in light of the . >> /First 9 0 R The main aim of the Criminal Justice System is to ensure the community is safe and reassure them that they are being protected from criminals. 570 500 930 722 667 722 722 667 611 778 Intro to Criminal Justice (CJ-112) Pathopharm I (NURS 1200 ) Critical Business Skills For Success (bus225) Fundamentals of Nursing (NUR1025) Programming 1 (CS 1102) . /Font << endobj Then we move on to the reliability of measurement, including consideration of true score theory and a variety of reliability estimators. Sources of Law: Administrative Law, Common Law, Case Law and Court Rules, 3.7. Whenever you define a variable operationally, you do so at some, (Research Methods in Anthropology: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches). The National Crime Victimization Survey, a general population survey designed to cover the extent, nature, and consequences of criminal victimization, has been conducted annually since the early1970s. There has been a significant lack of governmental and private interest and investment in research aimed at solving these kinds of problems. 611 778 778 333 333 444 444 350 500 1000 /F5 14 0 R In Levels of Measurement, I explain the meaning of the four major levels of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. /Subtype /TrueType Microsoft Word - Bachman, Stats 4e Ch 2 Discussion Group Problems2018-01-17T12:53:32+02:00 One chapter focuses on police organizations, and the other chapter examines standards and measures of court performance. 675 333 760 500 400 549 300 300 333 576 /Producer (Nuance PDF Create) In Chapter 2, for example, screening errors are discussed in the context of false positive reports of defensive gun uses. Show this book's table of contents, where you can jump to any chapter by name. For example, color is a nominal variable because numbers can be . 722 722 722 722 722 722 889 667 611 611 In this guide, we'll explain exactly what is meant by levels of measurement within the realm of data and statisticsand why it matters. The goal of the Committee on Law and Justice and the Committee on National Statistics in convening the workshop, commissioning the papers, and issuing this report is to stimulate further discussion and eventually a greater focus on the importance of improving data collection systems and measurement of crime. Malum in se crimes, murder, for example . Substantive Law: Physical Punishment Sentences, 3.10. According to David Farrington, Lloyd Ohlin, and James Q. Wilson "the defining feature of an experiment lies in the control of the ______ by the experimenter.". Parental involvement in the criminal justice system is found to have a detrimental effect on children's . A second example, which was explored in detail by McCleary and colleagues, centers on the victimization of persons with disabilities, and particularly persons with cognitive or developmental disabilities, and the extent to which a high percentage of false positivespersons identifying themselves as disabled when they are not from general population samples can distort any estimates of the correlates of that particular category.2. All rights reserved. Likewise, continued interest in evaluating specific subpopulations and geographic areas requires improved data and research methodologies. Statistical conclusion validity most often becomes an issue when findings are based on _____ of cases. 611 611 333 333 333 333 722 722 722 722 support the necessary changes at the state and local levels. 500 500 389 389 278 500 444 667 444 444 The classic survey sampling problems of response and coverage are of special concern when attempting to measure stigmatized and other deleterious events. Measures. /F1 10 0 R /Subtype /XML The areas with the smallest populations will have the extreme values and will dominate a map or a statistical analysis. They are concepts, measurement operations, evaluation of measures, and levels of measurement. IN THE FIRST PAPER, 'PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT AND THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM,' THE MEASUREMENT OF THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM PERFORMANCE IS DERIVED FROM AN INITIAL CONCEPTUALIZATION OF THE TOTAL SOCIAL COST ASSOCIATED WITH CRIME AND CRIME CONTROL AND THE NET COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE SERVICE PROVIDED BY THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM. Public opinion polls have repeatedly demonstrated that crime is a policy issue of pre-eminent concern to the American public. /Type /Catalog /Encoding /WinAnsiEncoding The experimental design ensures that the cause precedes the effect in time by taking posttest measurements of the dependent variable after introducing the experimental stimulus.
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