Roffwarg et al. C R Soc Biol (Paris) 1959;153:1024-8. In: Antrobus, J.S. Pompeiano O. Harvey Lect 1963;58:233-97. The physiological-functioning theory suggests that dreaming works the same way. During wakefulness theta waves consistently exhibit a lesser voltage and are less regular than during desynchronized sleep, what makes it easy to tell wakefulness from desynchronized sleep from the shear inspection of the electro-oscillograms (21,30,31,125). Jouvet M. The role of monoamines and acetylcholine-containing neurons in the regulation of the sleep-waking cycle. Schmidt MH, Sakai K, Valatrix JL, Jouvet M. The effects of spinal mesencephalic transections on sleep-related erections and ex-copula penile reflexes in the rat. As shown in figure 11, comparison of the instant voltage of theta waves among several regions of the brain shows that the correlation coefficient (r) may be very high. Wallace CS, Withers GS, George VM, Clayton OF, Greenough WT. Moruzzi's coined the name desynchronized sleep, which we prefer, because in humans desynchronization is the main electrophysiological marker of this phase. During REM sleep, several physiological changes also take place. Kohyama J, Shimomira M, Iwakawa y. Brainstem control of phasic mucsle activity during REM sleep: a review and hypothesis. doi: 10.1093/nc/nix009. Maquet et al. Similarly, in rats any kind of sensory stimulation does immediately mobilize sniffing and vibrissal scanning movements. 126. 104. Many hypotheses have been advanced but so far they do not explain why and what for we do dream. Psychophysiology 1968;4:311-23. De Sanctis S. I Sogni e il Sonno. During the medieval era in Spain, by then the very cultural center of Europe (probably of the entire world), and mainly in the 13th century, some Muslim Arabs and Jewish rabis, centered in Cordoba rediscovered the Greek literature, that had been concealed by early Christianism, and translated all that important work into Latin, Arabic and Hebraic. 40. Eye movements, muscle atonia, PGO potentials and arterial hypotension are still present after the transection. It seems that not only humans but also dogs, cows, sheep and goats and the entire family of four-legged viviparous animals do dream. Therefore, it seems that there are two major descending pathways from the rostral pons to the medulla that mediate muscle atonia during desynchronized sleep, one involved in the tonic and the other in the phasic muscle inhibition. Many studies performed during the eighteenth century confirmed such statement (4,7). The site is secure. 9. Noda H, Adey WR. It has, however, been utilized with a great success in sleep studies. 130. Despite the fact that many studies have found that mental activity during wakefulness differs from that during dreaming, the mechanisms involved in both may differ as to the degree of control over the release and combination of memorized information in wakefulness and in desynchronized sleep. Phenomenal dream content, however, is not as disorganized as such views imply. In 1963 we found that cholinergic stimulation of a descending pathway (within Nauta's limbic-mesencephalic system) causes sleep (33). In: The Neuropsychology of Sleep and Dreaming, Antrobus, J. S. & Bertini, M. Ann Rev Psychol 1990;41:557-884. Despite such discrepancies, however, during synchronized sleep PRT studies reveal a decrease in global cerebral energy metabolism relative to both waking and desynchronized sleep. In 1944 Obhlmeyer, Brilmayer & Uhlstrung (10) observed that in humans penile erection occurs during sleep at intervals of 85 minutes, which is the average duration of a sleep cycle. 89. Wehr TA. New findings on the neurological organization of dreaming: implications for psychoanalysis. Arch Ital Biol 1969;107:175-216. Regional cerebral glucose metabolic rate in human sleep assessed by positron emission tomography. Therefore, the wider is the eye rotation, the higher is the recorded potential, which occurs when the eyes are scanning the environment. Brain Res 1979;176:233-54. In fact, all the phases of wakefulness and sleep, including desynchronized sleep, occur in the cerebellar cortex. Am J Physiol 1937;118:8-14. In cats and monkeys eye movements are accompanied by monophasic spiky potentials in the occipital cortex, in the lateral geniculate body and in the pontine tegmentum (66-69). Revonsuo A. 52. J Neurophysiol 1964;27:152-71. However, they ignored that the dreams were produced by the brain. However, we all know that many dreams are not emotional at all. Braun AR, Balkin TJ, Wesenten NJ, Carson RE, Varga M, Baldwin P, et al. These findings point to a decreased activation of executive and association cortex during desynchronized sleep, what is suggestive that the processes involved in building up wakeful thought and dreaming may be distinct. and transmitted securely. The main purpose of experimental decerebration is to study the mechanisms of the fundamental posture, that is, the standing posture. He properly related such dreams to his concern with that important war. Simes CA, Valle AC, Timo-Iaria C. Correlation between concomitant theta waves in nucleus reticularis pontis oralis and in the hippocampus, thalamus and neocortex during dreaming in rats. Brain Res 1985;327:362-6. Such activation of zif-268, which is likely to be correlated with the effect of learning on desynchronized sleep, was larger in the frontal and hippocampal cortices, where memorization is well known to occur. MeSH Oswald I. (ed. 111. By lesioning the alphacoeruleus nuclei such an inhibitory effect is prevented and during oniric activity the movements generated by the dream itself can be expressed, as was clearly demonstrated in Jouvet's Laboratory (50,51) in cats; the animal suddenly gets up, walks, miews and strikes with the paws, as if the animal were awake. Unfortunately, despite the opinion of great scientists of the past, most researchers that deal with sleep and dreaming, probably moved by philosophical, religious prejudice and a faulty reasoning, do not accept the idea that non-human animals do dream. The postynaptic inhibitory control of lumbar motoneurons during the atonia of active sleep: effect of strychnine on motoneuron properties. De Sanctis, in 1899, in his book I Sogni, Studi Clinici ed Psicologici di un Alienista (Dreams, Clinical and Psychological Studies of a Psychiatrist), cites no less than 323 articles and books dealing with dreams, which proves that the objective study of dreams did not start during the middle of the 20th century, as is usually taken for granted (4). In cats, tympanic muscles sometimes contract during desynchronized sleep (38), as shown in Figure 4. Braz J Med Biol Res 1995;28:385-96. 134. Therefore, theta waves undergo both AM and FM changes that certainly carry some kind of information that may prove in the future to be crucial for understanding dreams. The dream between neuroscience and psychoanalysis. At 36C, for instance, desynchronized sleep spans to about 10% of time, at 23C it occupies nearly 80% of the time, what has not been explained so far. The gamma-alpha loop has been shown to play no role in producing the movements that characterize dreaming. Calkins thus discovered that most dreams occur during the second half of the night and that around 89% of them are closely related to the events occurring the day before, confirming Aristotle. The authors suggest that such a disturbance of reproduction occurs because desynchronized sleep (and consequently dreaming) was prevented to occur normally in infancy but the functional meaning of this interesting phenomenon. Unless we agree that such movements in human and in non-human animals are manifestations of dreaming activity, it is impossible to explain the electro-oscillograms and the movements that both classes of animals exhibit during desynchronized sleep. Vertes & Eastman (88) argue against memory consolidation during sleep, what is in opposition to Wilson & McNaughton's hypothesis (87). They include facilitation of memory storage, (1997), in their PET studies, found a significant deactivation, in desynchronized sleep, of a large portion of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, what was found also by Madsen et al. Although it may happen in any sleep phase, it prevails during the desynchronized phase. Movements of the eyes when the lids are closed. These patients are not able to produce visual reminiscences, which may be explained by the fact that visual information is permanently kept in the visual cortex. Rados R, Cartwright RD. Dreams during REM sleep tend to be longer, more vivid, more story-like, and more bizarre than those during NREM sleep. cognitive development. The case against memory consolidation in REM sleep. 51. yet, it is well known since Kohlschtter and Michelson (4,8) that the threshold to awaken a human being during desynchronized sleep is much lower than the one to produce wakefulness during synchronized sleep. This author "thus proposes a psychoanalytical model of dreaming, in which dreams constitute a way of representing the individual's inner world with internal objects related with one another and with the self" (135). Two major theories have been proposed regarding the neural circuits involved in dreaming. Roffwarg HP, Adrien J, Herman J, Pessah M, Spiro R, Bowe-Anders C. The middle ear muscle activity in the neurophysiology and psychophysiology of the REM state. 70. The neurophysiological mechanisms of the postural and motor events during desynchronized sleep. 108. He gives Control of upper airway motoneurons during REM sleep. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! Front Neurol. J Abnorm Psychol 1982;91:433-6. In nocturnal macrosmatic animals, olfaction is the predominant sensory channel and their vibrissae are usually very long, to detect the presence of objects at relatively large distances. ", "As to the oviparous creatures, it is obvious that they sleep but it is impossible to state that they dream. Plenum Press, 1990. J Neurophysiol 1946;9:165-71. Brain Res 1982;233:287-98. Such high values of r may mean that theta waves arrive in such areas almost synchronously, coming from some other sites in the central nervous system. It should be recalled here that, comparing the dream content in humans with events of the previous day, Calkins found in 1876 that nearly 89% of the reported dreams were closely related to such events. San Diego, 1973. In an extensive review on this subject, Solms (2000) describes a complete cessation of dreaming in patients with posterior cortical or deep bilateral frontal lesions (96). Its is noteworthy that Weed & Halam's data, published in 1896, are close to those reported by Rechtschaffen & Buchignani in 1992, which was calculated as the mean of the average of seven different studies published by other authors (40). The other is that dreams are caused Silent functional magnetic resonance imaging demonstrates focal activation in rapid eye movement sleep. According to Hobson, Pace-Schotter & Stickgold (2000), since image studies show activation of "limbic" and "paralimbic" structures of the forebrain during desynchronized sleep, as compared to wakefulness (120,126-128), emotion may be a primary shaper of dream plots, rather than playing a secondary role plot instigation. As such, this explanation may be interpreted as a way of doing something that we should never be allowed to do without paying for it. Klein M, Michel F, Jouvet M. tude polygraphique du sommeil chez les oiseaux. Timo-Iaria C, Negro N, Schmidek WR, Rocha TL, Hoshino K. Phases and states of sleep in the rat. 71. 83. 72. Sleep 1973;2:36-42. Editor-translator: Gallop, D., Aris & Phillips Ltd., Warminster, England 1991. 107. Miyauchi S, Takino R, Fukuda H, Torii S. Electrophysiological evidence for dreaming. Brain warning function for REM-sleep. Green JD, Arduini A. Hippocampal activity in arousal. Analysis of the electro-oscillograms yields extremely relevant information that can be correlated with movements and changes in heart rate, blood pressure and respiration. As any information consciously identified, a dream triggers a specific behavior, that we call an oniric behavior. Oniric behaviors, as any other behavior during wakefulness, comprise two types of identifiable manifestations: motor and vegetative. Depression of electrically induced reflexes (H- reflexes) in man during low voltage EEG sleep. Later, the Roman writer Lucretius, the first popularizer of science, in his book De Rerum Natura (1978) credited these Greek philosophers for the discovery of the characteristics of sleep and dreams (2). Physiology and Psychology. 33. Braun et al. to the nervous tissue and muscles during the activation of the circuits that program and execute a particular behavior; and 2. Modifications of recurrent discharge of the alpha motoneurons during sleep. Science 1966;153:206-8. Sleep Res 1973;4:65. 117. It is usually taken for granted that PGO potentials are essential manifestations for the electrophysiological identification of dreaming activity but such view is not well founded. Phase, it prevails during the activation of the postural and motor events during desynchronized.... Play no role in producing the movements that characterize dreaming reflexes ) in man during low voltage EEG.!, we all know that many dreams are not emotional at all wakefulness, comprise two types of manifestations... Postural and motor events during desynchronized sleep dream content, however, we all know that many dreams are emotional! To his concern with that important war call an oniric behavior control of lumbar motoneurons during the activation of electro-oscillograms! Circuits involved in dreaming F, jouvet M. the role of monoamines acetylcholine-containing! 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